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АбстракционизмПолезное: -реферат на тему "Абстракционизм" Абстракциони́зм (лат. "abstractio" – удаление, отвлечение) — направление нефигуративного искусства, отказавшегося от приближённого к действительности изображения форм в живописи и скульптуре. Одна из целей абстракционизма — достижение «гармонизации», создание определённых цветовых сочетаний и геометрических форм, чтобы вызвать у созерцателя разнообразные ассоциации. Крайнее проявление модернизма. В живописи России XX века главными представителями А. были : Василий Кандинский (работавший в Германии, где и создал первые абстрактные композиции), Михаил Фёдорович Ларионов, создавший в 1910-1912гг "лучизм", перспективное направление А., пока еще мало известное и, считавший себя основоположником нового типа творчества супрематизма, Казимир Малевич, создатель знаменитого «Чёрного квадрата». Родственным А. течением является кубизм, стремящийся изобразить реальные объекты множеством пересекающихся плоскостей, создающих образ неких прямолинейных фигур, которые воспроизводят живую натуру. Одними из самых ярких примеров кубизма были ранние работы Пабло Пикассо. Некоторые течения в абстрактном искусстве: супрематизм, неопластицизм, ташизм - стремление выразить стихийность, бессознательность творчества в динамике пятен или объемов. Абстракционизм, беспредметное искусство, нонфигуративное искусство, модернистское течение, принципиально отказавшиеся от изображения реальных предметов в живописи, скульптуре и графике. Абстрактное искусство возникло в 1910—13 в ходе расслоения кубизма, экспрессионизма, футуризма.Первые его образцы создали работавший в Германии В. В. Кандинский, француз Р. Делоне, испанец Ф. Пикабия, чех Ф. Купка, некоторые итальянские футуристы (У. Боччони и др.), в России — К. С. Малевич, М. Ф. Ларионов и Н. С. Гончарова, в Нидерландах — представители неопластицизма (П. Мондриан, Т. ван Дусбюрги др.). Работавшие в Париже украинец А. П. Архипенко, румын К. Брынкуши и др. обратились несколько позже к опытам абстрактной скульптуры. После 1-й мировой войны 1914—18 годах тенденции абстрактного искусства зачастую проявлялись в отдельных произведениях представителей дадаизма и сюрреализма; вместе с тем определилось стремление найти применение неизобразительным формам в архитектуре, декороративном искусстве, дизайне (эксперименты группы Стиль" и "Баухауза"). Несколько групп абстрактного искусства («Конкретное искусство», 1930; "Круг и квадрат", 1930; "Абстракция и творчество", 1931), объединивших художников различных национальностей и направлений, возникло в начале 30-х гг., главным образом во Франции. Однако широкого распространения абстрактное искусство в то время не получило, и к середине 30-х гг. группы распались. В годы 2-й мировой войны 1939—45 в США возникла школа так называемого абстрактного экспрессионизма (живописцы Дж. Поллок, М. Тоби и др.), развивавшегося после войны во многих странах (под названием ташизма или "бесформенного искусства") и провозгласившего своим методом "чистый психический автоматизм" и субъективную подсознательную импульсивность творчества, культ неожиданных цветовых и фактурных сочетаний. В 60-х гг. как один из вариантов абстрактного искусства развивался оп-арт; вместе с тем в этот период абстрактное искусство как течение теряет свои позиции и вытесняется различными направлениями. Абстракционизм (искусство под знаком "нуля форм”, беспредметное искусство) – художественное направление, сформировавшееся в искусстве первой половины 20 века, полностью отказавшееся от воспроизведения форм реального видимого мира. Основоположниками абстракционизма принято считать (см. статью Л.Рейнгардта "Абстракционизм” в книге "Модернизм. Анализ и критика основных направлений”) В. Кандинского, П. Мондриана и К. Малевича. В.Кандинский создал собственный тип абстрактной живописи, освобождая от всяких признаков предметности пятна импрессионистов и "диких”. Пит Мондриан пришел к своей беспредметности через геометрическую стилизацию природы, начатую Сезанном и кубистами. Третий основоположник – Казимир Малевич – соединяет в своем "супрематизме” оба пути. Произведение художника, пусть изначально и имевшее своей основой что-нибудь реальное, становится абстрактным с того момента, как в нем не остается ничего из того , что указывает на этот исходный пункт, когда произведение передает уже только чистые элементы композиции и цвета. Платон - предвестник абстракционизма. (из теории о происхождении абстракционизма известного исследователя модернизма Герберта Рида (кн. "Образ и идея”), в соответствии с изложением ее Л.Рейнгардтом.) Начало традиционной эстетики искусства, воплощавшего вплоть до 20 века в разных формах реалистические тенденции, была положена еще Аристотелем в его теории "мимезиса” – "подражания природе”. Модернистские течения 20 века, ориентированные на абстракционизм, полностью отходят от традиционных принципов, отрицая реализм, но при этом остаются в рамках искусства. История искусства с появлением абстракционизма пережила революцию. Но эта революция возникла не случайно, а вполне закономерно, и была предсказана еще Платоном! В своем позднем произведении "Филеб” тот писал о красоте самих по себе линий, поверхности и пространственных форм, независимых от всякого подражания видимым предметам, от всякого мимезиса. Такого рода геометрическая красота в отличие от красоты природных "неправильных” форм, по мнению Платона, имеет не относительный, а безусловный, абсолютный характер. Наиболее крайняя школа модернизма - абстракционизм. Абстрактное искусство, называемое также нонфигуративным искусством, сложилось как направление в 10-х годах нашего столетия. Поскольку художники этого течения отрицают всякую изобразительность в искусстве, отказываются от изображения предметного мира, абстракционизм называют еще беспредметничеством. Теоретики абстракционизма выводят его от Сезанна через кубизм. Именно такой путь - от изобразительности через "идеальную реальность" так называемого синтетического кубизма к полной неизобразительности - прошел один из основоположников "неопластицизма" нидерландский живописец Пит (Питер Корнелис) Мондриан (1872-1944), который считал, что "чистая пластика создает чистую реальность". В 10-е годы Мондриан был связан с кубизмом, правда, доведя его принципы до простого черчения на плоскости. На родине, в Голландии, у Мондриана появляется группа последователей, объединившихся вокруг журнала "Стиль". Программа журнала провозглашала создание универсального образа мира посредством прямоугольников разного цвета, отделенных друг от друга жирной черной линией. Так появились бесчисленные композиции без названия, под номерами и буквами. Мондриан был буквально одержим культом равновесия вертикалей и горизонталей и порвал с журналом "Стиль", когда тот ввел в 1924 году как компонент выразительного языка угол в 45 градусов. Положения Мондриана в 40-е годы были подхвачены итальянскими "конкретистами". Опираясь на утверждение Мондриана, что "нет ничего конкретнее, чем линия, цвет, плоскость", они стали создавать "новую действительность" из линий и плоскостей открытого желтого, красного, синего цвета. Другой основоположник абстракционизма - Василий Кандинский (1866-1944) создал свои первые "беспредметные" произведения еще раньше кубистов. Москвич родом, Кандинский сначала готовился к юридической карьере, в 1896 году приехал в Мюнхен где учился в школе А.Ажбе (1897-1898) и в Академии художеств (1900) у Ф.фон Штука, прошел увлечение Гогеном и фовистами, народным лубком. В 1911 году совместно с Ф.Марком создал объединение "Синий всадник". В своей работе "О духовном в искусстве" он провозглашает отход от натуры, от природы к "трансцендентальным" сущностям явлений и предметов; его активно занимают проблемы сближения цвета с музыкой. Кандинский испытал также большое влияние символизма. Несомненно, от символизма его понимание черного, например, как символа смерти, белого - как рождения, красного - как мужества. Горизонтальная линия воплощает пассивное начало, вертикаль - активное начало. Исследователи справедливо считают, что Кандинский - последний представитель литературно-психологического символизма, подобно Моро во Франции и Чюрленису в Литве, и вместе с тем первый абстрактный художник." Предметность вредна моим картинам", - писал он в работе "Текст художника". Картины Кандинского этого периода представляют собой красочные полотна, в которых бесформенные пятна интенсивного цвета в красивых сочетаниях пересекаются кривыми или извилистыми линиями, иногда напоминающими иероглифы. Это само по себе было уже великим преступлением, с точки зрения Мондриана, они скорее близки детской непосредственности полотен Клее. Картины Кандинского напоминают чем-то зафиксированные в красках фотографические эффекты света. Abstract art uses a visual language of form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time. Abstract art, nonfigurative art, nonobjective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, although perhaps not of identical meaning. Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be only slight, or it can be partial, or it can be complete. Abstraction exists along a continuum. Even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, can be said to be partially abstract. Total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities. Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational (or realistic) art often contains partial abstraction. Both Geometric abstraction and Lyrical Abstraction are often totally abstract. Among the very numerous art movements that embody partial abstraction would be for instance fauvism in which color is conspicuously and deliberately altered vis-a-vis reality, and cubism, which blatantly alters the forms of the real life entities depicted. Much of the art of earliest peoples – signs and marks on pottery, textiles, and inscriptions and paintings on rock – were simple, geometric and linear forms which might reveal a symbolic or decorative purpose. It is at this level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it. Three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century. Patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Early intimations of a new art had been made by James McNeill Whistler who, in his painting Nocturne in Black and Gold: The falling Rocket, (1872), placed greater emphasis on visual sensation than the depiction of objects. An objective interest in what is seen, can be discerned from the paintings of John Constable, J M W Turner, Camille Corot and from them to the Impressionists who continued the plein air painting of the Barbizon school. Paul Cézanne had begun as an Impressionist but his aim - to make a logical construction of reality based on a view from a single point, with modulated colour in flat areas - became the basis of a new visual art, later to be developed into Cubism by George Braque, Pablo Picasso. Expressionist painters explored the bold use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations, and intense color. Expressionists produced emotionally charged paintings that were reactions to and perceptions of contemporary experience; and reactions to Impressionism and other more conservative directions of late 19th century painting. The Expressionists also drastically changed the emphasis on subject matter in favor of the portrayal of psychological states of being. Although artists like Edvard Munch and James Ensor drew influences principally from the work of the Post-Impressionists they were instrumental to the advent of abstraction in the 20th century. Additionally in the late 19th century in Eastern Europe mysticism and early modernist religious philosophy as expressed by theosophist Mme. Blavatsky had a profound impact on pioneer geometric artists like Wassily Kandinsky, and Hilma af Klint. The mystical teaching of Georges Gurdjieff and P.D. Ouspensky also had an important influence on the early formations of the geometric abstract styles of Piet Mondrian and his colleagues in the early 20th century. Post Impressionism as practiced by Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne had an enormous impact on 20th century art and led to the advent of 20th century abstraction. The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. With his expressive use of color and his free and imaginative drawing Henri Matisse comes very close to pure abstraction in French Window at Collioure, (1914), View of Notre-Dame, (1914), and The Yellow Curtain from 1915. The raw language of color as developed by the Fauves directly influenced another pioneer of abstraction Wassily Kandinsky (see illustration). Although Cubism ultimately depends upon subject matter, it became, along with Fauvism, the art movement that directly opened the door to abstraction in the 20th century. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions. Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter. The collage artists like Kurt Schwitters and Man Ray and others taking the clue from Cubism were instrumental to the development of the movement called Dada. In 1913 the poet Guillaume Appollinaire named the work of Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Orphism. He defined it as, the art of painting new structures out of elements that have not been borrowed from the visual sphere, but had been created entirely by the artist...it is a pure art.Some artists of the period defied categorization, such as Georgia O'Keeffe who, while a modernist abstractionist, was a pure maverick in that she painted highly abstract forms while not joining any specific group of the period. Since the turn of the century cultural connections between artists of the major European and American cities had become extremely active as they strove to create an art form equal to the high aspirations of Modernism. Ideas were able to cross-fertilize by means of artists books, exhibitions and manifestos so that many sources were open to experimentation and discussion, and formed a basis for a diversity of modes of abstraction. By 1911 many experimental works in the search for this 'pure art' had been created. František Kupka had painted the Orphist work,'Discs of Newton'.The Rayist (Luchizm) drawings of Natalia Goncharova and Mikhail Larionov, used lines like rays of light to make a construction. Kasimir Malevich completed his first entirely abstract work, the Suprematist, 'Black Square', in 1915. Another of the Suprematist group' Liubov Popova, created the Architectonic Constructions and Spatial Force Constructions between 1916 and 1921. Piet Mondrian was evolving his abstract language, of horizontal and vertical lines with rectangles of colour, between 1915 and 1919, Neo-Plasticism was the aesthetic which Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg and other in the group De Stijl intended to reshape the environment of the future. In Italy the futurism, mixed with Bauhaus influence, led the way to an abstract art with a distinct warm colour palette such as in the works of Manlio Rho and Mario Radice. Some approaches towards abstract art drew connections to music. Music provides an example of an art form which uses the abstract elements of sound and divisions of time. Wassily Kandinsky, himself a musician, was inspired by the possibility of marks and associative color resounding in the soul. The idea had been put forward by Charles Baudelaire, that all our senses respond to various stimuli but the senses are connected at a deeper aesthetic level. Closely related to this, is the idea that art has The spiritual dimension and can transcend 'every-day' experience, reaching a spiritual plane. The Theosophical Society popularised the ancient wisdom of the sacred books of India, China in the early years of the century. It was in this context that Piet Mondrian, Wassily Kandinsky, Hilma af Klint and other artists working towards an 'objectless state' became interested in the occult as a way of creating an 'inner' object. The universal and timeless shapes found in Geometry: the circle, square and triangle become the spacial elements in abstract art; they are, like color, fundamental systems underlying visible reality. Many of the abstract artists in Russia became Constructivists believing that art was no longer something remote, but life itself. The artist must become a technician, learning to use the tools and materials of modern production. Art into life! was Vladimir Tatlin's slogan, and that of all the future Constructivists. Varvara Stepanova and Alexandre Exter and others abandoned easel painting and diverted their energies to theatre design and graphic works. On the other side stood Kazimir Malevich, Anton Pevsner and Naum Gabo. They argued that art was essentially a spiritual activity; to create the individual's place in the world, not to organise life in a practical, materialistic sense. Many of those who were hostile to the materialist production idea of art left Russia. Anton Pevsner went to France, Gabo went first to Berlin, then to England and finally to America. Kandinsky studied in Moscow then left for the Bauhaus. By the mid-1920s the revolutionary period (1917 to 1921) when artists had been free to experiment was over; and by the 1930s only social realist art was allowed. The Bauhaus at Weimar, Germany was founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius. The philosophy underlying the teaching program was unity of all the visual and plastic arts from architecture and painting to weaving and stained glass. This philosophy had grown from the ideas of the Arts and Crafts movement in England and the Deutsche Werkbund. Among the teachers were Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Johannes Itten, Josef Albers, Anni Albers, Theo van Doesburg and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. In 1925 the school was moved to Dessau and, as the Nazi party gained control in 1932, The Bauhaus was closed. In 1937 an exhibition of degenerate art, 'Entartete Kunst' contained all types of avant-garde art disapproved of by the Nazi party. Then the exodus began: not just from the Bauhaus but from Europe in general; to Paris, London and America. Paul Klee went to Switzerland but many of the artists at the Bauhaus went to America. During the 1930s Paris became the host to artists from Russia, Germany, Holland and other European countries affected by the rise of totalitarianism. Sophie Tauber and Jean Arp collaborated on paintings and sculpture using organic/geometric forms. The Polish Katarzyna Kobro applied mathematically based ideas to sculpture. The many types of abstraction now in close proximity led to attempts by artists to analyse the various conceptual and aesthetic groupings. An exhibition by forty-six members of the Cercle et Carré group organised by Michel Seuphor contained work by the Neo-Plasticists as well as abstractionists as varied as Kandinsky, Anton Pevsner and Kurt Schwitters. Criticised by Theo van Doesburg to be too indefinite a collection he publish the journal Art Concret setting out a manifesto defining an abstract art in which the line, color and surface only, are the concrete reality.[citation needed] Abstraction-Création founded in 1931 as a more open group, provided a point of reference for abstract artists, as the political situation worsened in 1935, and artists again regrouped, many in London. The first exhibition of British abstract art was held in England in 1935. The following year the more international Abstract and Concrete exhibition was organised by Nicolete Gray including work by Piet Mondrian, Joan Miró, Barbara Hepworth and Ben Nicholson. Hepworth, Nicholson and Gabo moved to the St. Ives group in Cornwall to continue their 'constructivist' work. Main articles: Modernism, Late Modernism, American Modernism, and Surrealism During the Nazi rise to power in the 1930s many artists fled Europe to the United States. By the early 1940s the main movements in modern art, expressionism, cubism, abstraction, surrealism, and dada were represented in New York: Marcel Duchamp, Fernand Léger, Piet Mondrian, Jacques Lipchitz, Max Ernst, André Breton, were just a few of the exiled Europeans who arrived in New York. The rich cultural influences brought by the European artists were distilled and built upon by local New York painters. The climate of freedom in New York allowed all of these influences to flourish. The art galleries that primarily had focused on European art began to notice the local art community and the work of younger American artists who had begun to mature. Certain of these artists became distinctly abstract in their mature work. Eventually
American artists who were working in a great diversity of styles
began to coalesce into cohesive stylistic groups. The best known
group of American artists became known as the Abstract expressionists
and the New York School. In New York City there was an atmosphere
which encouraged discussion and there was new opportunity for
learning and growing. Artists and teachers John D. Graham and Hans
Hofmann became important bridge figures between the newly arrived
European Modernists and the younger American artists coming of age.
Mark Rothko, born in Russia, began with strongly surrealist imagery
which later dissolved into his powerful color compositions of the
early 1950s. The expressionistic gesture and the act of painting
itself, became of primary importance to Jackson Pollock and Franz
Kline. While during the 1940s Arshile Gorky's and Willem de Kooning's
figurative work evolved into abstraction by the end of the decade.
New York City became the center, and artists worldwide gravitated
towards it; from other places in America as well. At the beginning of the 21st century abstraction, abstract art, contemporary painting and contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of pluralism. The "crisis" in painting and current art and current art criticism today is brought about by pluralism. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an anything goes attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit. Digital art, Computer art, Internet art, Hard-edge painting, Geometric abstraction, Appropriation, Hyperrealism, Photorealism, Expressionism, Minimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, Pop art, Op art, Abstract Expressionism, Color Field painting, Monochrome painting, Neo-expressionism, Collage, Intermedia painting, Assemblage painting, Digital painting, Postmodern painting, Neo-Dada painting, Shaped canvas painting, environmental mural painting, Graffiti, traditional figure painting, Landscape painting, Portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions at the beginning of the 21st century. Into the 21st century abstraction remains very much in view, its main themes: the transcendental, the contemplative and the timeless are exempified by Barnett Newman, John McLaughlin, and Agnes Martin as well as younger living artists. Art as Object as seen in the Minimalist sculpture of Donald Judd and the paintings of Frank Stella are still seen today in newer permutations. The poetic, Lyrical Abstraction and the sensuous use of color seen in the work of painters as diverse as Robert Motherwell, Patrick Heron, Kenneth Noland, Sam Francis, Cy Twombly, Richard Diebenkorn, Helen Frankenthaler, Joan Mitchell, among others.
Wassily Kandinsky, On White 2, 1923 |
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